Ancient electrical cells have been discovered in Sumerian ruins dating from around 250 BC.  The first evidence of batteries comes from archaeological digs in Baghdad, Iraq.  One of the first uses for batteries was to electroplate objects with a thin layer of metal, much like the process used now to plate inexpensive gold and silver jewelry. The early jar cells were found in Khujut Rabu just outside Baghdad and is composed of a clay jar with a stopper made of asphalt. Sticking through the asphalt is an iron rod surrounded by a copper cylinder. When filled with vinegar - or any other electrolytic solution - the jar produces about 1.1 volts.

Modern battery development dates as far back as the late 18^th century. The cause was championed by the work carried out by Luigi Galvani from 1780 to 1786. Through his experiments Galvani observed that, when connected pieces of iron and brass were applied to frog’s legs, they caused them to twitch. However, Galvani thought that the effect originated in the leg tissue. Nevertheless, Galvani had laid the cornerstone for further developments in "voltaic" electricity.

From 1796 - 1799, Alessandro Volta experimented with zinc and silver plates to produce electric currents at the Pavia University. Volta stacked the two to form a "pile", the first "dry" battery. By 1800 Volta had created the "crown of cups", a modified arrangement of zinc and silver discs dipped in a salt solution.

Allesandro Volta

In the years that followed other means of producing electricity were invented, all of which involved the use of liquid electrodes. Those developed by Bunsen (1842) and Grove (1839) were amongst the most successful systems, and, were used for many years.

By 1866, Georges Leclanche, a French engineer, patented a new system, which was immediately successful. In the space of two years, twenty thousand of his cells were being used in the telegraph system. Leclanche's original cell was assembled in a porous pot. The positive electrode consisted of crushed manganese dioxide with a little carbon mixed in. The negative pole was a zinc rod. The cathode was packed into the pot, and a carbon rod was inserted to act as a currency collector. The anode or zinc rod and the pot were then immersed in an ammonium chloride solution. The liquid acted as the electrolyte, readily seeping through the porous cup and making contact with the cathode material. Leclanche's "wet"cell (as it was popularly referred to) became the forerunner to the world's first widely used battery, the zinc carbon cell.

Leclanche's invention, which was quite heavy and prone to breakage, was steadily improved over the years. The idea of encapsulating both the negative electrode and porous pot into a zinc cup was first patented by J.A. Thiebaut in 1881. But, it was Carl Gassner of Mainz who is credited as constructing the first commercially successful "dry" cell. Variations followed. By 1889 there were at least six well-known dry batteries in circulation. Later battery manufacturing produced smaller, lighter batteries, and the application of the tungsten filament in 1909 created the impetus to develop batteries for use in torches.

The production of batteries was greatly increased during the First World War as a means of powering torches, field radios. Other milestones in battery production include the widespread radio broadcasting, which brought battery-operated wireless into the heart of many homes. But, it was during the inter-war years that battery performance was greatly enhanced. This was achieved through better selection of materials and methods of manufacture.

Batteries have now become an essential part of everyday life. They are the power source for millions of consumer, business, medical, military and industrial appliances worldwide. This demand is growing.  The term 'battery' comes from having a number (a battery) of separate cell cases all joined together by electrical connections.  These days the electrical connections and cells are normally included in one casing, such as in a car battery - in this case six 2 volt lead-acid cells totaling 12 volts.

There are many types of battery but they all store energy as chemical potential - i.e. two chemicals which react in a solution when a circuit is made.  There are primary and secondary cells.  Primary cells use the chemical components of the battery itself to produce energy (this includes fuel cells).  When the components are used the battery is discarded, except in a fuel cell where the fuel spent can be replaced.  Secondary cells, or accumulators may be re-charged many times over.  

The most common type of secondary cell is the "lead-acid" type used to start motor car engines.  Taken to the extreme lead-acid batteries can produce a very high output for a short duration, an example of which is the Hawker SBS range of aircraft starter batteries.  These batteries are the least expensive but have a limited life and store less energy per pound than other types.

Until a few years ago "nickel-cadmium" batteries were the most popular rechargeable small cells with a capacity measured in amp-hours, nearing twice that of lead-acid and 1.2 volts per cell.  Nickel-cadmium is not so popular now as "nickel-metal-hydride" batteries were developed for automotive use and lately produced in popular AA sizes.  NiMh cells are now very popular batteries for cameras, mobile phones, etc, with much better storage and 1.5 volts per cell and at about the same price as NiCads - but still more than lead-acid, until that is, the lifespan is taken into account when NiMh start to look attractive.

Polymer cells such as produced by Worley International offer still higher storage capacity per kilo but are much more expensive again.  These cell are used for exotic applications such as solar car racing and land speed record vehicles.

SOLAR RICKSHAW STORAGE BRIEF

A project to design and build a solar powered rickshaw is under way in Sussex, England.  The brief is to replace the existing auto-rickshaws powered by inefficient 2 stroke engines, with electric rickshaws powered in the main directly by solar panels.   In order to provide the necessary range for a whole days work, the solar rickshaw will need to store energy produced by its solar panels in a battery or other storage device.  Although regenerating fuels cells might be a viable option in the future, at present this technology is not far enough advanced, and far too expensive in any event.  However, Nickel Metal Hydride batteries offer one possible solution and Lithium Polymer cells another.  These cells will reduce the mass of storage medium to acceptable levels and provide long term savings if running costs.  we will report on this exciting development as news comes in.......................

British Battery Manufacturers Association (BBMA) Members:

Battery manufacturers, distributors, or large chain stores will often private label their batteries, for example, EverStart for Wal-Mart, DieHard for Sears and DuraLast for Auto Zone. The larger chain stores might have batteries with their private label made by several manufacturers depending on the location to reduce shipping costs or to provide more different types or sized of batteries. Below is a list in alphabetical order of the largest battery manufacturers, joint ventures, distributors, and dealers with some of their brand names, trademarks and private labels, hyperlinks to their Web addresses and telephone numbers. The manufacturers are in bold type. Ownership, supply contracts, branding, Web addresses and telephone numbers are subject to change. For example, EnerSys purchased Hawker and portions of Yuasa; Johnson Controls acquired the automotive battery portions of Hoppecke, Varta, Bosch and Grupo IMSA; and Yuasa and Japan Storage Battery have merged as GS Yuasa.

The manufacturer's code number will be on the battery and is only sure way of identifying the manufacturer. Ask the dealer who made the battery. Material Safety Data Sheets, (MSDS) can provide a useful source of information on the manufacturer of the battery. Manufacturers, joint ventures or distributors will sometimes have lines within a trademark or brand, for example, Bronze, Silver, Gold, Platinum, Titanium, Premium, Heavy Duty, Commercial, Standard, Plus, Turbo, Calcium, Classic, Maintenance Free, etc., for differentiating quality, features or warranty periods. They will also contract with other manufacturers to build special purpose batteries and batteries to complete their product lines that are not economically feasible to build themselves. A good manufacturers cross reference list for Sealed Lead-Acid (SLA) batteries can be found on Battery Solutions Web site.

Trademarks, brand names and registrations are owned by their respective companies and are as shown below to locate the most current information. Other good sources of battery manufactures is BaSyTec's Hyperlink list at http://www.basytec.de or the membership list of Associations, Business Directories or Hyperlink Lists found in the Battery References and Information Links List at http://www.batteryfaq.org. Answers to Frequently Asked Questions, (FAQs) and additional information on car, motorcycle, truck, marine, and recreational vehicle starting and deep cycle lead-acid batteries can be found at http://www.batteryfaq.org.

RACING DRIVERS INDEX